Michaela Valentová, MSc., Ph.D.

V poslední době se v energetickém a teplárenském sektoru objevují dekarbonizační a decentralizační trendy, které vedou k transformaci celého odvětví. V reakci na odklon od tradičních velkých zdrojů energie vzniká zajímavý fenomén - rozvoj sdílené výroby energie mezi koncovými spotřebiteli.

Strategic policy planning has gained increasing importance in international energy and climate policy. This paper aims to contribute to the debate on stringent policy planning by drawing lessons learned from two decades of strategy development in the field of European energy efficiency policy. Since the inception of the first national energy efficiency action plans under the Energy Services Directive (2006/32/EC), the European Commission and the Member States have had a long experience in planning national strategies. This paper analyses the lessons learned in setting up national energy efficiency strategies and traces the progress made in 2007–2020. Our findings show that major improvements are attained in the latest national energy and climate plans through the adoption of harmonised reporting approaches, evidence-based target setting methods, establishment of better monitoring systems and broader consideration of policy packages. Various areas with a significant potential for further improvements are also identified, ranging from more coherent reporting framework for policies and measures to the need of setting up systems that encourage the adoption of targets in line with a country's cost-effective energy efficiency potential. Embedding energy efficiency in the larger climate policy framework, considering how it can support pressing socioeconomic challenges, is also of pivotal importance.

Energy crops grown on agricultural land compete with conventional crops in terms of access to soil. Failure to respect the price of biomass from energy crops and its competitiveness can lead to a significant overestimation of the potential of biomass. For the analysis of the competitiveness of energy crops, a methodology was created based on respecting specific climatic and soil parameters on individual land plots and their utilization both for conventional and energy crops. The lower limit of the biomass price from the producer's point of view is modelled on the assumption of achieving the same economic effect from conventional and energy crops over the lifetime of energy crop plantations. The methodology applied on the example of Czechia using GIS modelling shows that due to large variability in yields of both energy and conventional crops, there are large differences (up to 2.5 fold) in the profitability (and thus competitiveness of energy biomass) within territories and land zones. The realistic biomass potential is thus not only fundamentally reduced, but also geographically diverged. The modelling results also show the need for a differentiated approach to energy crop support in relation to locality conditions, yields and prices of conventional crops, including subsidies to conventional agriculture.

V Česku stále přes 300 tisíc domácností využívá uhlí pro lokální vytápění. Čtyři z deseti českých domácností jsou pak vytápěny ze systému zásobování teplem, přičemž 60 % tepla je vyrobeno na bázi uhlí. Studie připravená týmem Fakulty elektrotechnické ČVUT v rámci projektu Climate Investment Capacity ukazuje cestu postupného přechodu k ekologickým řešením, včetně dočasného využití zemního plynu. Jde o první scénář realistické dekarbonizace teplárenství ve střední Evropě. Domácnosti ve střední a východní Evropě jsou typicky závislé na uhlí a plynu v teplárenství a mezinárodní výzkumné týmy problém doposud patřičně neřešily. Studie ukazuje, že bude potřeba do roku 2030 investovat do teplárenství přes 98 miliard korun, zemní plyn může být ale vzhledem k cíli klimatické neutrality pouze přechodným palivem.

Reaching climate neutrality by 2050 is one of the main long-term objectives of the European Union climate and energy policy, and renewable energy sources (RES) are integral parts of this transition. RES development results in many effects, direct and indirect, linked to each other, societal, local and individual, i.e., “multiple impacts of RES” (MI RES). These effects need to be carefully assessed and evaluated to obtain the full picture of energy field transformation and its context, and enable further development of RES. Nevertheless, the MI RES concept is often presented misleadingly and its scope varies throughout the literature. This paper provides a literature overview of the methodologies of this concept and presents a new concept of MI RES, respecting the difference between effects resulting from the implementation of RES and ultimate multiple impacts. We have summarized the effects into four groups: economic, social, environmental, and technical, which all lead to group of ultimate multiple impacts. Finally, we provide the complex overview of all MI RES and present the framework, which is used to analyze the multiple impacts and effects of RES and to show how the RES development leads and contributes to these impacts and effects. The concept is recommended to be considered in designing a robust energy policy by decision-makers.

The Energy Union strategy ―built on thedimensions ofenergy security, internal energy market, energy efficiency, decarbonisation, research, competitivenessand innovation― aims to ensure secure, sustainable, affordable and competitive energy for all its citizens and businesses in the midst of the ongoing energy transition. The 2030 climate and energy framework sets targets for cutting greenhouse gas emissions,increasing the share of renewable energy andimprovingenergy efficiency. Under the Energy Union Governance Regulation, Member States were required to adopt integrated national energy and climate plans (NECPs) for the period 2021-2030, laying out their national contributions to the EU targets as well as their plans of accompanying policies and measures. This report represents the first of the series of reports assessing the energy efficiency dimension of the national energy and climate plans of EU Member States submitted under the Energy Union Governance.Building on past JRC assessments on energy efficiency in the frameof the 2020policy, the reportprovides an evaluation of the national contributions towards the EU energy efficiency targetin 2030and presents an overview of all relevant policies and measures reported by the Member States in their plans. The implementation of key provisions of EU directives based on the information found in the NECPs is discussed, and recommendations on how to improve the future policy and reporting framework are provided.Whilst several positive developments have been identifiedin this analysis, the assessment has also highlighted the need to step up the ambition set by Member States, including the need to provide more robust evidence of the impact of proposed policies and actions against the various energy efficiency targets and requirements set in the context of EU directives.

Electric vehicles are a mobility innovation that can help significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change. However, increasing numbers of electric vehicles require the construction of a dense charging infrastructure with a sufficient number of chargers. Based on the identified requirements for existing electric vehicle users and potential new customers, the paper proposes a charging point model for an urban area equipped with a local transformer station and a sufficient number of low-power chargers. In particular, the model focuses on efficient use of chargers throughout the day, considering private rental of chargers paid by residents in the evening. The model uses an optimization method that compares the non-covered fixed costs due to unsold electricity to nonresidents and the annualized costs of building an additional transformer. The proposed optimal charging point solution was tested in a case study using real data capturing users’ habits and their arrivals in and departures from the car park. As our model results show, the great benefit of a park-and-ride car park equipped with chargers consists of a simple increase in car park efficiency, ensuring sufficient numbers of private charging lots, optimizing operating costs, and supporting the development of electromobility.

V článku představujeme výstupy analýzy investičních potřeb pro plnění klimaticko-energetických cílů k roku 2030 České republiky a porovnáváme je s identifikovanými současnými toky klimaticko-energetických investic. Zaměřujeme se na dva sektory, jež také budou hlavními přispěvateli k dosažení klimaticko-energetických cílů – budovy a obnovitelné zdroje energie a infrastruktura nezbytná k jejich rozvoji.

Transaction costs have a negative impact on the implementation and effectiveness of energy efficiency policies, while they remain rarely systematically tracked and evaluated. Transaction costs should decrease over time, thanks to the ageing of the policy (and the effects of learning) and the prevalence of initial, fixed costs. However, we find that the opposite may be true. We examine the effect of time and learning on the structure and size of transaction costs by using a data set of two programmes in two programming periods (2007–2013 and 2014–2020). We find that despite the continuity of the programmes, the burden of transaction costs in both cases increased significantly. The potential gains from learning throughout the programmes are overrun by constant internally and externally driven changes to the programme. In addition, through the course of the programmes, smaller and more complicated projects prevail. Lastly, due to internal organisational changes among the recipients, there is little institutional memory and distribution of information. An early thorough preparatory phase of a programme and stability of the institutional environment increase the effectiveness of the programmes. Differentiating the administrative processes according to the size of projects, with simplified procedures for smaller projects, may further decrease administrative intensity.

The presentation assessed the main challenges in energy efficiency policy in Central Europe.

A significant amount of financing has been available for improvements in energy efficiency in buildings in recent years. However, careful evaluation of the real impacts of the programmes is still inadequate. The paper provides an insight into the relationship between the expected outcomes and the actual results of an energy efficiency programme. It does so on a case example of one of the most significant energy efficiency and renewable energy sources programmes in Central Europe, the Green Savings programme. In total, 206 measures were inspected in 124 projects of the programme. The analysis of the inspections showed that there is a significant difference between the expected, verified CO2 emission reduction and ex-post, real attained reduction (25 % on average). The reasons are partly methodical, but most can be attributed to the behavioural factors of occupants in the respective buildings. The results therefore clearly show the need to tackle the relationship between the calculated (expected) energy savings (and related CO2 emission reduction)savings and the real savingssavings which are highly influenced by building users. Ex-post evaluations should be done, among other things, to provide a more accurate picture regarding the member states` energy efficiency improvement obligations. Furthermore, such evaluation also provides an essential input for further optimisation of the future energy efficiency support programmes.

The paper provides an overview of the climate finance flows in Czechia and Germany. It provides insight not only into the climate flows as such, but (maybe more importantly so), it also points out to the existing gaps in systematic tracking of climate related finances in various sectors.

Transaction costs are perceived as one of the main barriers in achieving energy efficiency. Hence, the omission of transaction costs in the evaluation (and preparation) of energy efficiency policies leads to suboptimal decision-making. However, empirical evidence on the main factors influencing transaction costs of energy efficiency programmes remains insufficient. By investigating two cases of major energy efficiency subsidy programmes in the Czech Republic, we analyse the role of two factors influencing the transaction costs: size of the projects and type of actors. The results show that while the dependence between the size of the projects and the size of transaction costs is rather straightforward, the role of actors is more complex. On one hand, no significant difference has been found between total transaction costs of the two types of actors entering the analysed programmes (private companies and public entities). Our results imply the potential for optimization of transaction costs in energy efficiency subsidy programmes lies in streamlining the internal processes (especially in the preparatory phase and in public tenders) and a clear legal environment. On the other hand, differences between the two entities were found in the costs of external services, indicating a room for optimization for public bodies.

Transaction costs are perceived as one of the main barriers to energy efficiency. One of the factors influencing the size of transaction costs is the learning effect. This paper explores the role of this effect on the case study of two energy efficiency programmes of the Czech Republic. The first results show that the learning effect has the potential to decrease the transaction costs but to a limited extent.

The paper presents an economic model that provides a systemic approach to the evaluation of growing biomass for energy purposes. We argue that to correctly evaluate the potential of energy biomass, it is necessary to look at it from three different, but interconnected perspectives: (1) minimum price for growing biomass for energy purposes, (2) opportunity costs with respect to other uses of the arable land, namely production of conventional crops, and (3) the aspects of substitution of fossil fuels (e.g., coal) for biomass—the analysis of the demand. Our economic model incorporates the three above points of view. Furthermore, on the case study of the Czech Republic, we show the practical implications of the model on assessment of energy biomass in real conditions. The main findings are that to give the farmers the same rate of return as conventional crops, the price of intentionally grown biomass for energy purposes in the Czech Republic would have to be up to almost three times higher than is the adequate minimum price. On the other hand, in order to be competitive as a substitute for coal for local space heating, the price of biomass would have to be close to zero.

Decision-making on investments in power, cogeneration or heating plants using biomass needs estimates of future biomass prices. A so-called minimum price, which is based on the economic analysis of a project aimed at intentionally planted biomass, can be used for setting the bottom limit of a future biomass price. When calculating the bottom biomass price estimate, one also has to respect alternative options for agricultural land utilisation for conventional crops. The upper limit for the biomass price from the demand side point of view should be based on an economic evaluation of substitution of conventional fuels with biomass. The paper presents methodological approaches for modelling of biomass prices from these different points of view as well as results of model calculations for the conditions of the Czech Republic.

The article presents a methodology that allows the complex evaluation of the energy and economic effectiveness of the different kinds of biomass providing, processing and utilization for energy purposes. The methodology is based on identification of the whole fuel cycle for the individual types of grown biomass and conversion technologies used for production of end-use energy products (such as biomethane, liquid biofuels, electricity, and heat). The evaluation of energy efficiency is based on the calculation of the net energy effect resulting from the use of 1 ha of agricultural land to grow biomass for energy purposes respecting differences in biomass fuel cycles due to differences in biomass production, conversion technologies, and end-use energy products. Evaluation of the economic effectiveness of biomass utilization combines efficiency of biomass planting, conversion technologies, and the economic parameters of the individual elements of the fuel cycle. The application of the method is demonstrated on selected cases of biomass fuel cycles in the conditions of the Czech Republic. The methodology can serve as the groundwork for identifying the most effective strategies of biomass utilization for the energy purposes with respect to the limitation of agricultural land availability and the economic effectiveness of end-use energy products providing.

Solid-State Lighting (SSL) is a fast evolving, promising energy-efficient technology, offering a wide range of potential uses. The paper presents the status of existing LED pilot actions in Europe, analysing 106 LED test cases from 17 European countries. Projects from the public and commercial sectors form the focus of the paper, with special attention devoted to the economics of LED projects – particularly in terms of energy savings. The results of the test cases demonstrate wide variation. Installations offer energy savings of 59% in average (savings range from 10% up to more than 90%). In many applications, LEDs are competitive (with payback time ranging from 2 to 10 years), yet a large number of projects are still in the trial phase. From the test cases reviewed, the most successful applications are, in terms of savings and economic considerations, 1) replacement of incandescent light bulbs in traffic light systems, and 2) replacement of halogen spotlights in indoor applications. The LED projects bring many co-benefits, including lower maintenance costs, improved lighting characteristics, or improved ambience. Some challenges to address remain, such as to improve the quality characteristics of LEDs and the quality of information and data provided by manufacturers/suppliers, and optimality of LED technology for existing street lighting systems.

The paper analyses methodical approach to identification of critical situations, in which the domestic biomass can serve as a source for operation of critical infrastructure, and to identification of the biomass potential that can be mobilized, taking into account time of initiation of the crisis as well as its length.

The Czech Republic is bound to increase its share of renewable energy sources to 13 % of total final energy consumption by 2020 and biomass is to play the key role in reaching the target. The paper therefore analyses the current status and targets for development of energy biomass use in the Czech Republic, together with the current status of support schemes for biomass. Finally, we outline the general approach to develop an optimized and coherent support system for RES, which leads to the above goals.

The chapter outlines an approach to setting effective support schemes that will reach the targets effectively. The systemic approach is presented on a case study of the main renewable energy source in the Czech Republic: the biomass.

The method presented in the paper allows evaluating the net energy effect of use of 1 ha of agricultural land for energy biomass. The method is based on identification of the whole fuel cycle for specific types of biomass and conversion technologies used for production of end-use energy products (such as bio methane, liquid biofuels, electricity and heat). The method of net energy effect is demonstrated on three cases of different biomass fuel cycles. Based on the net energy effect of biomass use, the method to calculate specific costs of energy production, respecting different fuel cycles, is presented. The methods presented in the paper can serve for instance for evaluation of biomass potential on agricultural land and for selection of the optimum mix of energy biomass use.

The chapter describes the two principal operational programmes (their components in fact) focusing on support to energy efficiency, their benefits so far and an evaluation of their effectiveness.

Článek se zabývá hodnocením transakčních nákladů programu na podporu energetické efektivnosti.

Rozhodování o realizaci investic do energetických zařízení využívajících biomasu vyžaduje odhad možné budoucí ceny biomasy. Pro stanovení spodního limity ceny biomasy (strana nabídky) lze využít metodiku minimální ceny produkce založené na simulování hotovostních toků projektů pěstování biomasy. Při stanovení spodního limitu ceny biomasy je nutné respektovat ekonomickou efektivnost alternativního užití zemědělské půdy při pěstování klasických zemědělských plodin. Limit ceny biomasy z hlediska poptávky je dán cenou substituovaných paliv při respektování vyvolaných efektů jako jsou úspory emisních povolenek apod. Článek prezentuje metodická východiska pro ceny biomasy ze strany nabídky a poptávky. Zároveň uvádí konkrétní hodnoty výsledků výpočtu možného rozpětí ceny biomasy s využitím konkrétních údajů o pěstování lesknice rákosovité a plantáží rychle rostoucích dřevin (RRD), o rentabilitě pěstování klasických zemědělských plodin a limitních cen biomasy z hlediska substituovaných paliv (tříděného hnědého uhlí) pro domácnost a energetického hnědého uhlí pro výrobu elektřiny spoluspalováním biomasy a hnědého uhlí.

Obnovitelné zdroje energie nejsou při výrobě elektrické energie v současné době ekonomicky konkurenceschopné oproti "klasickým" zdrojům elektrické energie a jejich rozvoj je nutno ekonomicky podporovat zvoleným systém podpor. Tento článek analyzuje současný stav a v oblasti vícenákladů OZE pro výrobu elektrické energie a v návaznosti na něj modeluje vývoj výroby elektřiny na bázi OZE a s tím související náklady systému podpor v horizontu roku 2020.

The report provides a detailed overview of the current status of Green Public Procurement (GPP) activities in European Union Member States. Based on the analysis of the present situation and future plans in individual countries, recommendations are made for LED specifications. In many countries, lighting (and LEDs) is still not among the priority product groups covered by the respective Green Public Procurement documents. However, all EU Member States have good practices for the use of LEDs.

The article presents the main results of the study on public procurement of LEDs in all members states of the EU.

Biomass is expected to play significant role in RES utilization development in next few decades, but its potential is limited by the availability of land, economic and other barriers. Intentionally planted biomass for energy purposes competes with classical agricultural production and with biomass for liquid biofuels production. All these options differ in the economic effectiveness from farmers' point of view, time horizons and in level of associated risk. Level of risk associated with the biomass production for energy purposes is influenced by factors such as policy of agricultural subsidies, structure of land ownership and typical length of land rental contracts or way of inclusion of biomass production variation (as the result of uncontrollable weather conditions etc.). Besides higher risk there are other economic barriers slowing down development of biomass growth on agriculture land.

We analyse results of four-year operation of the GreenBuilding Programme. In 2006-2009, 167 Partners joined the Programme with 286 buildings. Energy savings reach more than 304 GWh/year and average at 41% per project. Evaluation shows that cost-effective energy savings in buildings are feasible.

Projekty energetické efektivnosti včetně výroby energie z obnovitelných zdrojů (OZE) se v současnosti u nás rozvíjejí relativně rychle. Článek analyzuje pravděpodobné přínosy vybraných programů na podporu úspor energie a rozvoje OZE.

This report presents the status of existing LED pilot actions in Europe, analysing 106 LED test cases from 17 European countries. Projects from the public and commercial sectors form the focus of the report, with special attention devoted to the economics of LED projects.

Methodology of feed-in tariffs (FIT) determination is based on rate of return approach in the Czech Republic. Since the mid. of 2008 many of FIT scheme pitfalls started to occur - e.g. strong lobbyism during reference projects update, limitation of FIT values reduction for new projects leading to inadequately high FIT values, different rate of return on equity capital for different kind of consumers resulting from WACC approach in discount rate determination, absence of any roof for any RES kind, etc. These pitfalls have led to the unexpected development of RES utilization for power generation, boom of PV projects, and enormous increase of cost of support scheme potentially resulting in unacceptable growth of electricity prices. Paper analyses possible pitfalls of the Czech FIT scheme and discusses effects of these FIT scheme pitfalls on FIT values and to the cost of support scheme.

The paper assesses transaction costs of the energy efficiency programmes in the Czech Republic. It is argued that unless transaction costs are taken into evaluation when assessing the effectiveness of the programmes, the decisions made can be suboptimal from the system point of view. The Operational Programme Environment under EU Structural Funds is analysed as a case study. Transaction costs on the side of the applicant and the administration body are assessed. The conclusions are that the level of transaction costs is much higher on the side of the applicant and may reach 15 % of the value of investment, whereas the transaction costs of the administration body reach ca 3 %. Both shares are expected to be the lower bound of the estimate.

The paper assesses transaction costs of the energy efficiency programmes in the Czech Republic. It is argued that unless transaction costs are taken into evaluation when assessing the effectiveness of the programmes, the decisions made can be suboptimal from the system point of view. The Operational Programme Environment is taken as a case study. Transaction costs on the side of the applicant and the administration body are assessed. The conclusions are that the level of transaction costs is much higher on the side of the applicant and may reach up to 10 % of the value of investment, only including the preparation of the project, but disregarding most parts of the implementation and monitoring phases.

Studie analyzuje transakční náklady vybraných programů na podporu energetické efektivnosti v České republice. Předmětem studie je tedy podrobné vyhodnocení vybraných programů (OPŽP Prioritní osa 3, OPPI Program EKO-ENERGIE a program Zelená úsporám) z hlediska jejich administrativní náročnosti jak na straně příjemce dotace, tak na straně administrátora dotačního titulu. Publikace dále obsahuje podrobné hodnocení ex-ante přínosů doposud realizovaných projektů v rámci analyzovaných programů. Výsledkem je pak hodnocení měrných nákladů na redukci 1 tuny CO2 u jednotlivých programů, se zahrnutím transakčních nákladů.

The paper assesses the main barriers that prevent economic energy efficiency potential from being realized. The main barriers discussed here include energy prices (and prices of technology), limited access to capital, lack of information, incorrect risk assessment (i.e. setting a discount rate), the principal-agent problem and transaction costs. Transaction costs are analyzed in greater detail, as they are one way or another related to all of the barriers mentioned here. Based on the analysis, there is a discussion on implications for effective policy making. These are specially needed for transaction costs, where the availability of empirical data is very limited.

The paper assesses the main barriers which prevent economic energy efficiency potential from being realized. The main barriers, which are discussed, include energy prices (and prices of technology), limited access to capital, lack of information, incorrect risk assessment (i.e. setting of discount rate), principal-agent problem and transaction costs. The last named barrier - transaction costs are analyzed in greater detail, as they are one way or another related to all of the aforementioned barriers. Based on the analysis, implications for effective policy making are discussed. These are specially needed for transaction costs, where the availability of empirical data is very limited.

The paper focuses on efficiency measures implemented in the participating buildings in the GreenBuilding Programme and the energy savings achieved.

Článek sanalyzuje úroveň standby u jednotlivých kategorií spotřebičů a zabývá se možnostmi snižování standby jak na straně výrobců elektrospotřebičů, tak na straně koncového uživatele.

The report assess the four year operation of the GreenBuilding Programme, which is a European voluntary programme. It promotes energy efficiency in non-residential buildings in EU. So far, more than 300 buildings have become Partners to the Programme.

The paper analyses transaction costs in energy efficiency programmes in the Czech Republic. The paper presents analysis of effectiveness of the programmes through the theory of transaction costs.

The paper assesses energy saving potential, which can be attained economically by using simple standby reduction devices in Central Eastern Europe.

The paper assesses the attainable levels of electricity savings and economic benefits for consumers from using simple standby reduction devices. It also takes into account the willingness of the users to change their behaviour. Based on surveys carried out in the Czech Republic, the paper argues it is economically beneficial for the households to use simple standby reduction devices without substantial need to sacrifice the original level of comfort of the users Two simple devices are examined in this sense: the switched socket power board and the standby killer.

The paper assesses various attainable levels of electricity savings resulting from reducing standby energy consumption. The energy savings potential is analysed taking into account the existing regulation, the lifetime of different appliances or their sales, as well as willingness of the users to change their behaviour (e.g. use simple standby reduction devices). Two domestic appliance categories, which are the most significant in terms of standby power in Central Eastern Europe (represented by the Czech Republic), are addressed: home entertainment equipment and office equipment. With respect to the retail store survey results, potential implications on the design of the products are examined and also use of simple standby reduction devices, as a complement to (hard) regulatory measures, is assessed.

As a result of the process of economic transition since the early 1990s, the Czech Republic has been able to stay below its Kyoto Protocol assigned amount of GHGs. This surplus can be traded with other industrialised countries. The revenues of such trades are spent domestically on energy saving programmes. This article describes how this has been organised.

As of April 2008, 71 GreenBuilding Partner statuses have been awarded leading to a reduction of primary energy of about 120 000 MWh per year. Furthermore, about 29 000 tons of CO2 emission savings will be achieved each year. This paper presents the results of the first three years of operation, in terms of saved energy, type of buildings, and type of organization. In addition, following interviews with the participants, the paper will also describe their motivations in investing in energy efficiency, as well as their views on the GreenBuilding Programme.

Presentation at the workshop dealt with two voluntary ´programmes of the European Commission: GreenBuilding and GreenLight. Major results and achievements were described.